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Eur J Neurosci 44:25042514

a precursor or pro Vitamin D2, which is converted to vitamin D upon exposure to UV light

Its action is enhanced by the presence of vitamin C , which regenerates oxidised glutathione, vitamin E , which protects cell membranes, vitamin B3 (niacin) , which stimulates microcirculation and energy metabolism, and vitamin A , essential for skin turnover and elasticity

Melasma is difficult to treat with a high recurrence rate, and there is no universally effective treatment

Consequently, optimisation of nose-to-brain delivery is frequently achieved through a combination of targeted deposition in upper nasal regions and permeability-enhancing excipients as well as nanocarrier systems that protect the active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) from enzymatic degradation and facilitate mucosal transport (Chung et al., 2023, Dhuria et al., 2010, Illum, 2003)